Athens Journal of Mediterranean Studies XY
1
The Evolution of the Western Dragon
By Sharon Khalifa-Gueta Vol. X, No. Y https://www.athensjournals.gr/mediterranean/2018-1-X-Y-Khalifa-Gueta.pdf
p 3 In classical – primarily Greco-Roman – cultures, we encounter with the word „drakōn‟ as a definition for this reptilian figure in Greek („drakaina‟ is the word for a female dragon and „drakontes‟ is the plural), and „draco‟ in Latin („dracones‟ in plural) (Ogden 2013b: 2). In Here Be Dragons Ariane and Christian Delacampagne‟s (2003: 129) note that this word comes from the verb „seen‟ or „to see‟, which is related to the snake being lidless, as well as to the perception of the dragon as a being that preceded the creation of the world, and thus witnessed it. I agree with Daremberg (1877-1904: 403-414) initial suggestion that in the GrecoRoman era, „draco‟ meant snakes in general and not a specific species.
p 7 with „sadness‟, „illness‟, „death‟ and more (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 14- 21). The snake is the representation in nature of the absolute opposite of man – it has no limbs and moves horizontally, in the realms of „down‟. This led to identifying the snake figure with all that „down‟ symbolizes – „illness‟, „death‟, „evil‟ and more.
p 7 The fact that the snake is located at our „down‟ also has a biological implication; human beings are the most vulnerable at their feet, which are the least sensual parts of the body. Thus, the snake‟s place is at the human‟s „Achilles heel‟ (in real life as well as metaphorically).
Some snakes are venomous and several have venom so strong that they can kill a fully grown man in an instant. This feature has fascinated human beings from the dawn of time. In ancient Greek, snakes were believed to have a profound knowledge of herbs so that they could concoct a fatal poison (Ogden 2013b: 201-202). This is one of the reasons why snakes were believed to have a higher level of intelligence than man – that is, that they were thought to have access to knowledge of nature that eluded humans b. The fact
Another biological phenomenon that caught man‟s imagination was the fact that a snake leaves its old skin and emerges new and bright. Ancient men considered this as an ability to rejuvenate one and overcome death. The belief that snakes could overcome the absolute destiny of death was intriguing, and it led humans to try ways of imitating the behavior of snakes.
p 8 The combination of the shedding of the skin and the production of venom caused humans to view the snake as an alchemist that knew how to make potions that could kill but could also heal, whence comes the association between the snake and the notion of healing. c. Agriculture gods were also perceived as having to do with death and rebirth. The ability of snakes to control death and rebirth speaks to the connection between snakes and agriculture, wherein snakes were worshipped to ensure a good yield (Cook 1940: (1)211-229, Ogden 2013b: 204-205).
A snake inhabits an underground lair; sometimes it hibernates in the winter and only comes out in the spring, which simulates the behavior of vegetation. Yulia Ustinova demonstrates a connection between anguipedic deities, which had legs in the form of snake tails, and others that had vegetative legs, proving that the snake and vegetation were equal one to the other (Ustinova 2005: 64-79). b. Mary Douglas‟s (1966: 56-57) famous study on holiness and defilement of food in prescientific cultures posits a connection between taboos on food and animal habitations; animals that live underground are considered messengers of the underworld, so are defiled and should not be eaten. Mircea Eliade (1964: 259-266) discusses the role of snakes in shamanic cosmology in regard to the underground realm and the world of the dead. Anthropological evidence indicates that a snake was considered to be a messenger of death. c. The snake‟s chthonic qualities connect it to the earth element as well as to vegetation.
The snake‟s corporal flexibility led humans to imagine a snake as holding its tail in its mouth – creating a perfect geometrical circle. The cosmologies of several cultures depict the world as being surrounded by a huge dragon, which holds his tail in his mouth and keeps all matter together, thus preventing the world from coming apart, for example, the Ouroboros dragon (Graves 1955: 27-28, Reemes 2015). This shape was also linked to the element of time, especially in light of the rim surrounding Aion (Levi 1944: 269-314, Jackson 1985b: 17-45, Beck 1988: 54-57). d. Another connection to time was the Caduceus/Kerykeion Halm-Tisserant M, Gèrard S (1981-1999) (from the Greek κηρύκειον/kērukeion) of Hermes‟s Psychopompos sceptre, which has on it one or two dragons shaped as the digit 8, symbolizing eternity and reincarnation. The Caduceus/Kerykeionis mentioned in Cashford 2003 (The Homeric Hymns: Hymn to Hermes, 498) as the dead Python, which Apollo gave Hermes as a gift (Davis 1953: 37, Halm-Tisserant and Siebert 1981-1999: (1.1) 728- 730, (1.2) 495).
p 10 In dealing with the Mithraic Leontocephaline figure, which has an Aion/ Kronos aspect, in Planetary Gods and Planetary Orders in the Mysteries of Mithras, Beck (1988: 57) showed that the movement of the snake around the body of the god was a geometrical display of two time-systems – the linear and the circular. This was, then, a philosophical representation of the snake figuring the process of the soul from life to death and back (reincarnation), so it also symbolized the annual agricultural cycle as well as linear progress toward salvation. All of this is associated with the rise of the value of redemption and salvation religions (Alvar 2008).Taking into account all these biological qualities of the snake and their ancient interpretations led to a dragon image that manifested an opposition to man, that was considered more intelligent than man, and that had access to profound knowledge, which man craved. These features resulted in a symbolic connection between the dragon and water, earth, and agriculture. Associating the dragon as a guardian with agriculture yielded many myths wherein the creature was often a guardian of a tree or a water source. Most fundamentally, the dragon was a messenger of the underworld, which is what Claude Levi-Strauss (1963-1983, 1999: 25-33) defines as a „trickster‟ – a being that has the ability to move and mediate between worlds. The dragon is a trickster of time, space, and matter.
p 11 a. The Python – This is the basic dragon type that is credited with being a strong adversary with magical powers, its magician-like qualities usually being manifested after the dragon‟s death. The Python dragon is associated with a cave and a river. It is sometimes portrayed with wings because it belongs to a sphere closer to the gods. Examples: Apophis, Python, the Thebes dragon of Mars, and Mot (king of death).
b. The Hydra – This is the cosmic dragon that is sometimes multi-headed. This group also includes Ouroboros-like dragons, which are usually the symbol of the ultimate Doomsday battle between order and chaos (AyaliDarshan, 2011). The Hydra also represents the cosmic contraries relationship between heaven and the underworld. Examples: Hydra, Typhon, Ouroboros, the Zoroastrian Aži Dahāka and Thraētaona/ Zohak dahāg, the Antichrist dragon (Rev. 12: 7–9), the Old Testament‟s „TohuVavohu‟ (Gen. 1:1), the last of which, according to the scholars mentioned above is a dragon as such it belongs to this type, for it preceded god (Forsyth, 1987: 95).
c. The Ladon – This is the dragon that is wrapped around a tree or another vertical object. It is usually connected to beneficial aspects, medicine and healing, and to the concepts of time and circularity. This type is in most cases the guardian of a treasure – mostly trees and fruits and is connected to fertility concepts. Examples: the serpent of Colchis, Ladon, Asclepius and Salus/Hygieia dragons, the serpent of Eden (Gen. 3:1–26), the dragon that is wrapped around the Mithraic Leontocephaline, Humbaba, Aureus, Azag, and others.
d. The Ketos – This is the sea dragon, which is connected to water and the chaotic behavior of rivers and oceans. Examples: Ketos, Yam, Leviathan, Charybdis, and others.
p 3 In classical – primarily Greco-Roman – cultures, we encounter with the word „drakōn‟ as a definition for this reptilian figure in Greek („drakaina‟ is the word for a female dragon and „drakontes‟ is the plural), and „draco‟ in Latin („dracones‟ in plural) (Ogden 2013b: 2). In Here Be Dragons Ariane and Christian Delacampagne‟s (2003: 129) note that this word comes from the verb „seen‟ or „to see‟, which is related to the snake being lidless, as well as to the perception of the dragon as a being that preceded the creation of the world, and thus witnessed it. I agree with Daremberg (1877-1904: 403-414) initial suggestion that in the GrecoRoman era, „draco‟ meant snakes in general and not a specific species.
p 7 with „sadness‟, „illness‟, „death‟ and more (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 14- 21). The snake is the representation in nature of the absolute opposite of man – it has no limbs and moves horizontally, in the realms of „down‟. This led to identifying the snake figure with all that „down‟ symbolizes – „illness‟, „death‟, „evil‟ and more.
p 7 The fact that the snake is located at our „down‟ also has a biological implication; human beings are the most vulnerable at their feet, which are the least sensual parts of the body. Thus, the snake‟s place is at the human‟s „Achilles heel‟ (in real life as well as metaphorically).
Some snakes are venomous and several have venom so strong that they can kill a fully grown man in an instant. This feature has fascinated human beings from the dawn of time. In ancient Greek, snakes were believed to have a profound knowledge of herbs so that they could concoct a fatal poison (Ogden 2013b: 201-202). This is one of the reasons why snakes were believed to have a higher level of intelligence than man – that is, that they were thought to have access to knowledge of nature that eluded humans b. The fact
Another biological phenomenon that caught man‟s imagination was the fact that a snake leaves its old skin and emerges new and bright. Ancient men considered this as an ability to rejuvenate one and overcome death. The belief that snakes could overcome the absolute destiny of death was intriguing, and it led humans to try ways of imitating the behavior of snakes.
p 8 The combination of the shedding of the skin and the production of venom caused humans to view the snake as an alchemist that knew how to make potions that could kill but could also heal, whence comes the association between the snake and the notion of healing. c. Agriculture gods were also perceived as having to do with death and rebirth. The ability of snakes to control death and rebirth speaks to the connection between snakes and agriculture, wherein snakes were worshipped to ensure a good yield (Cook 1940: (1)211-229, Ogden 2013b: 204-205).
A snake inhabits an underground lair; sometimes it hibernates in the winter and only comes out in the spring, which simulates the behavior of vegetation. Yulia Ustinova demonstrates a connection between anguipedic deities, which had legs in the form of snake tails, and others that had vegetative legs, proving that the snake and vegetation were equal one to the other (Ustinova 2005: 64-79). b. Mary Douglas‟s (1966: 56-57) famous study on holiness and defilement of food in prescientific cultures posits a connection between taboos on food and animal habitations; animals that live underground are considered messengers of the underworld, so are defiled and should not be eaten. Mircea Eliade (1964: 259-266) discusses the role of snakes in shamanic cosmology in regard to the underground realm and the world of the dead. Anthropological evidence indicates that a snake was considered to be a messenger of death. c. The snake‟s chthonic qualities connect it to the earth element as well as to vegetation.
The snake‟s corporal flexibility led humans to imagine a snake as holding its tail in its mouth – creating a perfect geometrical circle. The cosmologies of several cultures depict the world as being surrounded by a huge dragon, which holds his tail in his mouth and keeps all matter together, thus preventing the world from coming apart, for example, the Ouroboros dragon (Graves 1955: 27-28, Reemes 2015). This shape was also linked to the element of time, especially in light of the rim surrounding Aion (Levi 1944: 269-314, Jackson 1985b: 17-45, Beck 1988: 54-57). d. Another connection to time was the Caduceus/Kerykeion Halm-Tisserant M, Gèrard S (1981-1999) (from the Greek κηρύκειον/kērukeion) of Hermes‟s Psychopompos sceptre, which has on it one or two dragons shaped as the digit 8, symbolizing eternity and reincarnation. The Caduceus/Kerykeionis mentioned in Cashford 2003 (The Homeric Hymns: Hymn to Hermes, 498) as the dead Python, which Apollo gave Hermes as a gift (Davis 1953: 37, Halm-Tisserant and Siebert 1981-1999: (1.1) 728- 730, (1.2) 495).
p 10 In dealing with the Mithraic Leontocephaline figure, which has an Aion/ Kronos aspect, in Planetary Gods and Planetary Orders in the Mysteries of Mithras, Beck (1988: 57) showed that the movement of the snake around the body of the god was a geometrical display of two time-systems – the linear and the circular. This was, then, a philosophical representation of the snake figuring the process of the soul from life to death and back (reincarnation), so it also symbolized the annual agricultural cycle as well as linear progress toward salvation. All of this is associated with the rise of the value of redemption and salvation religions (Alvar 2008).Taking into account all these biological qualities of the snake and their ancient interpretations led to a dragon image that manifested an opposition to man, that was considered more intelligent than man, and that had access to profound knowledge, which man craved. These features resulted in a symbolic connection between the dragon and water, earth, and agriculture. Associating the dragon as a guardian with agriculture yielded many myths wherein the creature was often a guardian of a tree or a water source. Most fundamentally, the dragon was a messenger of the underworld, which is what Claude Levi-Strauss (1963-1983, 1999: 25-33) defines as a „trickster‟ – a being that has the ability to move and mediate between worlds. The dragon is a trickster of time, space, and matter.
p 11 a. The Python – This is the basic dragon type that is credited with being a strong adversary with magical powers, its magician-like qualities usually being manifested after the dragon‟s death. The Python dragon is associated with a cave and a river. It is sometimes portrayed with wings because it belongs to a sphere closer to the gods. Examples: Apophis, Python, the Thebes dragon of Mars, and Mot (king of death).
b. The Hydra – This is the cosmic dragon that is sometimes multi-headed. This group also includes Ouroboros-like dragons, which are usually the symbol of the ultimate Doomsday battle between order and chaos (AyaliDarshan, 2011). The Hydra also represents the cosmic contraries relationship between heaven and the underworld. Examples: Hydra, Typhon, Ouroboros, the Zoroastrian Aži Dahāka and Thraētaona/ Zohak dahāg, the Antichrist dragon (Rev. 12: 7–9), the Old Testament‟s „TohuVavohu‟ (Gen. 1:1), the last of which, according to the scholars mentioned above is a dragon as such it belongs to this type, for it preceded god (Forsyth, 1987: 95).
c. The Ladon – This is the dragon that is wrapped around a tree or another vertical object. It is usually connected to beneficial aspects, medicine and healing, and to the concepts of time and circularity. This type is in most cases the guardian of a treasure – mostly trees and fruits and is connected to fertility concepts. Examples: the serpent of Colchis, Ladon, Asclepius and Salus/Hygieia dragons, the serpent of Eden (Gen. 3:1–26), the dragon that is wrapped around the Mithraic Leontocephaline, Humbaba, Aureus, Azag, and others.
d. The Ketos – This is the sea dragon, which is connected to water and the chaotic behavior of rivers and oceans. Examples: Ketos, Yam, Leviathan, Charybdis, and others.
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